Free Upper Elementary (3–6) Education Subtest 1: Professional Knowledge and Skills (MTTC) 121 Study Guide

Topic 1: Major Concepts, Principles, Theories, and Processes of Human Development in the Classroom

Understanding human development requires knowledge of the major theorists whose work shapes how we understand children's growth. Each theorist offers a different lens for understanding development.

Jean Piaget: Cognitive Development Theory

Jean Piaget revolutionized our understanding of child development by demonstrating that children are not "little adults" who simply know less—they actually think in fundamentally different ways at different ages. His theory describes four stages of cognitive development:

Stage	Age Range	Key Characteristics	What Children CANNOT Do Yet
Sensorimotor	Birth to 2 years	Learning through senses and motor actions; develops object permanence around 8-12 months; begins mental representation	Think symbolically; understand that objects exist when out of sight (until 8 months); use language meaningfully
Preoperational	2 to 7 years	Symbolic thinking emerges (pretend play, language explosion); egocentric—cannot see others' perspectives; intuitive rather than logical; animism (believing objects are alive)	Conserve (understand quantity stays same despite appearance changes); reverse operations mentally; take others' perspectives; think logically
Concrete Operational	7 to 11 years	Logical thinking about concrete, tangible objects; can classify, seriate, and conserve; understands reversibility; less egocentric	Think abstractly without concrete referents; handle hypothetical scenarios; engage in systematic scientific reasoning
Formal Operational	11 years and older	Abstract and hypothetical reasoning; systematic problem-solving; can think about thinking (metacognition); idealistic thinking emerges	N/A—this represents mature cognitive capability (though not all adults use formal operations in all domains)

EXAM CRITICAL CONCEPT: CONSERVATION

Conservation is the understanding that quantity, mass, volume, or number remains the same despite changes in appearance. This is a hallmark of the transition from preoperational to concrete operational thinking.

Classic Conservation Tasks:

• Number Conservation: Two equal rows of pennies—spread one row out. Preoperational child says the spread-out row has "more." Concrete operational child knows they're equal.
• Liquid Conservation: Pour water from a short, wide glass into a tall, thin glass. Preoperational child says the tall glass has "more." Concrete operational child recognizes the quantity hasn't changed.
• Mass Conservation: Roll a ball of clay into a snake. Preoperational child thinks the snake has "more clay."

Classroom Application: Most elementary students are in the concrete operational stage. This means you must:

• Use manipulatives and concrete objects before introducing abstract concepts
• Connect new learning to tangible, real-world experiences
• Don't expect students to reason abstractly without concrete support until middle school
• Recognize that early elementary students (K-1) may still be transitioning from preoperational thinking

Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural Theory

While Piaget emphasized individual construction of knowledge, Vygotsky argued that learning is fundamentally social. His key contributions include:

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):

The ZPD is the distance between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance from a more knowledgeable other. This is the "sweet spot" for instruction.

• Below the ZPD: Tasks the student can already do alone → No learning occurs (too easy, leads to boredom)
• Within the ZPD: Tasks the student can accomplish with support → THIS IS WHERE LEARNING HAPPENS
• Above the ZPD: Tasks too difficult even with help → Frustration, shutdown, learned helplessness

Scaffolding:

Scaffolding is the temporary support provided to help students accomplish tasks within their ZPD. Like construction scaffolding, it is meant to be gradually removed as the learner gains competence.

Level of Scaffolding	Teacher Actions	Examples
High Support	Direct instruction, modeling, think-alouds, worked examples	"Watch me solve this problem. First, I read the question and underline what it's asking..."
Medium Support	Guided practice, prompts, hints, partial completion	"What should you do first? Look at our anchor chart. What does step one say?"
Low Support	Monitoring, checking in, providing feedback on independent work	"You're on the right track. Double-check your work on number 3."
Independence	Student works alone successfully; teacher assesses mastery	Student completes similar problems independently and accurately

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): The person providing guidance—can be a teacher, peer, parent, or even a computer program. Peer tutoring leverages MKOs within the classroom.

Language and Thought: Vygotsky believed language is essential for cognitive development. Private speech (talking to oneself while working) is a tool for self-regulation and becomes internalized as inner speech.

Erik Erikson: Psychosocial Development Theory

Erikson identified eight psychosocial "crises" across the lifespan. Each stage presents a conflict that must be resolved for healthy development. For elementary teachers, these stages are critical:

Stage	Age	Crisis	Positive Resolution	Negative Resolution
1	0-1 year	Trust vs. Mistrust	Hope; sense that the world is safe and reliable	Fear; suspicion of the world
2	1-3 years	Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt	Will; sense of independence and self-control	Self-doubt; feeling incapable
3	3-6 years	Initiative vs. Guilt	Purpose; ability to initiate activities and pursue goals	Guilt; feeling that desires and actions are wrong
4	6-12 years	Industry vs. Inferiority	Competence; sense of mastery and achievement	Inferiority; feeling incompetent and inadequate
5	12-18 years	Identity vs. Role Confusion	Fidelity; clear sense of self and values	Confusion about identity and life direction

CRITICAL FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHERS: INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY

During elementary school years (ages 6-12), children are constantly asking themselves: "Am I competent? Can I do what's expected of me?" They compare themselves to peers and evaluate their abilities.

• When children experience success and feel capable, they develop a sense of industry—confidence in their ability to learn and achieve.
• When children repeatedly fail or feel less capable than peers, they develop a sense of inferiority—believing they are fundamentally inadequate.

Your Role as Teacher: Create opportunities for ALL students to experience genuine success. Scaffold appropriately so every student can achieve. Avoid public comparison and competition that highlights some students' inadequacies.

John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth: Attachment Theory

Attachment theory explains how early relationships with caregivers create internal "working models" that shape all future relationships—including the student-teacher relationship.

Attachment Style	% of Children	Early Experience	School Behavior	Teacher Response
Secure	~65%	Responsive, consistent caregiving	Confident; seeks help appropriately; recovers from setbacks; positive peer relationships	Maintain warmth and consistency; child will thrive
Anxious-Ambivalent	~10%	Inconsistent caregiving—sometimes responsive, sometimes not	Clingy; seeks constant reassurance; separation anxiety; hypervigilant to teacher's mood	Provide extreme consistency; prepare for transitions; be reliably available
Avoidant	~20%	Emotionally unavailable caregiving; rejection of needs	Distant; rarely seeks help; seems overly independent; may reject comfort	Gently invite connection without forcing; be patient; prove trustworthiness over time
Disorganized	~5%	Frightening, chaotic, or abusive caregiving	Unpredictable behavior; may freeze, dissociate, or become aggressive; confused responses to comfort	Prioritize safety and predictability; trauma-informed approach; involve support services

Key Insight: Students with insecure attachment may not respond to standard relationship-building approaches. The avoidant child may seem not to need you—but they do. The anxious child may seem demanding—but they need consistent reassurance. The disorganized child needs safety above all else.

Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory

Bandura demonstrated that learning occurs through observation and imitation, not just direct experience or reinforcement.

Key Concepts:

• Observational Learning: Children learn by watching models (parents, teachers, peers, media)
• Vicarious Reinforcement: Children learn from seeing others rewarded or punished
• Self-Efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed at a specific task—a powerful predictor of performance

Four Processes of Observational Learning:

1. Attention: Learner must notice the model's behavior
2. Retention: Learner must remember what they observed
3. Reproduction: Learner must be able to replicate the behavior
4. Motivation: Learner must want to perform the behavior

Classroom Application: Model the thinking and behaviors you want students to develop. Use think-alouds to make your cognitive processes visible. Choose peer models students can relate to.

Urie Bronfenbrenner: Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner argued that development occurs within nested systems of environmental influence:

• Microsystem: Immediate environments where the child directly participates (family, classroom, peer group, neighborhood)
• Mesosystem: Connections between microsystems (parent-teacher communication, consistency between home and school)
• Exosystem: Settings that indirectly affect the child (parent's workplace, school board decisions, community resources)
• Macrosystem: Cultural values, laws, customs, economic conditions, social norms
• Chronosystem: Changes over time (family transitions, historical events, life transitions)

Classroom Application: Understand that children are shaped by forces beyond the classroom. A child struggling may be affected by parental job loss (exosystem), cultural values about education (macrosystem), or a recent family move (chronosystem). Build strong mesosystem connections between home and school.

Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral Development Theory

Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning develops through stages:

Level	Stage	Reasoning	Typical Age
Pre-conventional	1. Obedience/Punishment	"I should follow rules to avoid punishment"	Early childhood
	2. Self-Interest	"What's in it for me? Fair exchange."	Early elementary
Conventional	3. Good Boy/Girl	"I want to be seen as good; I seek approval"	Later elementary
	4. Law and Order	"Rules exist for society; we must follow them"	Adolescence/Adult
Post-conventional	5. Social Contract	"Rules should benefit society; they can change"	Some adults
	6. Universal Principles	"I follow my conscience based on ethical principles"	Few adults

Classroom Application: Elementary students are typically at pre-conventional and early conventional levels. They follow rules to avoid punishment or gain approval. Help them move toward understanding the reasons behind rules and the importance of fairness.

Brain Development Research

Modern neuroscience provides crucial insights for teachers:

Age Period	Brain Development	Classroom Implications
Birth-3 years	Explosive synapse formation (700+ new neural connections per second); brain is highly plastic; experience shapes architecture	Rich language exposure; responsive relationships; sensory experiences are critical
3-6 years	Pruning begins ("use it or lose it"); prefrontal cortex still very immature; emotional brain develops faster than rational brain	Repeated practice of skills is essential; expect limited impulse control; co-regulate emotions
6-12 years	Continued pruning and myelination; prefrontal cortex developing but still immature; capacity for sustained attention increases	Building automaticity through practice matters; executive function still developing; provide external supports
12+ years	Major prefrontal cortex development; limbic system (emotions/rewards) highly active; prefrontal not fully mature until mid-20s	Adolescent risk-taking is neurological; need scaffolded independence; appeal to emotions while building rational thinking

The Prefrontal Cortex and Executive Function:

The prefrontal cortex controls executive functions—the mental processes that allow us to plan, focus, remember instructions, and manage multiple tasks. It is the LAST part of the brain to fully develop (not complete until approximately age 25).

Executive Functions Include:

• Working Memory: Holding information in mind while using it
• Inhibitory Control: Stopping before acting; controlling impulses
• Cognitive Flexibility: Switching between tasks or perspectives
• Planning and Organization: Setting goals and determining steps to achieve them
• Task Initiation: Getting started on tasks
• Emotional Regulation: Managing feelings appropriately

Executive Function Development by Age:

Age	Working Memory	Inhibitory Control	Cognitive Flexibility
3-4 years	Can hold 1-2 items; needs frequent reminders	Very limited; acts on impulse	Struggles with rule changes; perseverates
5-6 years	Can hold 2-3 items; beginning to use strategies	Emerging; can wait sometimes	Can switch with support and warning
7-9 years	Can hold 3-4 items; uses rehearsal	Improving; can stop and think first	Adapts to new rules with practice
10-12 years	Can hold 4-5 items; uses multiple strategies	More consistent; better self-monitoring	Flexible thinking grows; handles complexity

KEY INSIGHT: When a child can't follow multi-step directions, loses materials, acts impulsively, or has trouble starting tasks, the problem may be developmental, not behavioral. Provide external supports (checklists, timers, visual cues) rather than punishment.

Topic 2: Developmental Milestones and Variation Across Seven Domains

Human development occurs simultaneously across seven interconnected domains. Teachers must understand typical development in each domain, recognize that variation within any age group is normal, and use this knowledge to inform instructional decisions.

The Seven Developmental Domains

Domain	What It Includes	Key Developmental Progressions
PHYSICAL	Gross motor skills (large muscles), fine motor skills (small muscles), sensory processing, health and physical fitness	Early childhood: Running, jumping, climbing; developing pencil grip; cutting with scissors Elementary: Coordinated sports movements; legible handwriting; detailed artwork; improved stamina
ADAPTIVE (SELF-HELP)	Self-care, daily living skills, independence, self-regulation, personal responsibility	Early childhood: Dressing with help, feeding self, toileting, following simple routines Elementary: Independent self-care, organizing materials, managing homework, following complex routines
COGNITIVE	Thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, memory, attention, executive function	Early childhood: Preoperational thinking; symbolic play; short attention span; limited memory strategies Elementary: Concrete operational thinking; longer focus; logical reasoning; developing metacognition
LINGUISTIC	Receptive language (understanding), expressive language (speaking), pragmatic language (social use), literacy development	Early childhood: Vocabulary explosion; simple sentences; emergent literacy; phonological awareness Elementary: Complex sentences; 40,000+ word vocabulary; reading fluency; written expression
SOCIAL	Peer relationships, cooperation, conflict resolution, social awareness, group participation	Early childhood: Parallel play → associative play; simple friendships; learning to share Elementary: Cooperative play; stable friendships; group belonging; peer influence increases
EMOTIONAL	Self-awareness, emotional regulation, empathy, resilience, self-concept	Early childhood: Names basic emotions; needs adult help to regulate; emerging empathy Elementary: Understands complex emotions; growing self-regulation; deeper empathy; developing self-concept
MORAL	Understanding of right/wrong, fairness, justice, ethical reasoning, conscience development	Early childhood: Rules are absolute; avoids punishment; limited perspective-taking Elementary: Understands rules can change; concerned with fairness; developing conscience; considers intent

Deep Dive: The Adaptive/Self-Help Domain

This often-overlooked domain is critical for school success. Students who lack adaptive skills will struggle academically—not because they can't learn, but because they can't manage the demands of the learning environment.

Self-Care Skills Progression:

Age	Self-Care Expectations
2-3 years	Feeds self with spoon; removes simple clothing; attempts handwashing; begins toilet training
3-4 years	Dresses with assistance; uses toilet independently; brushes teeth with help; pours from small pitcher
4-5 years	Dresses independently (except buttons/zippers); washes hands properly; manages toileting fully; uses fork and knife
5-6 years	Ties shoes; selects weather-appropriate clothing; follows personal hygiene routines; packs own bag
6-8 years	Manages personal belongings; organizes materials; monitors own cleanliness; prepares simple snacks
8-12 years	Manages multi-step routines independently; takes responsibility for homework; maintains organized workspace; manages time

Self-Regulation Components:

• Impulse Control: The ability to stop and think before acting; resisting temptation; waiting for turns
• Emotional Regulation: Managing feelings appropriately; calming down when upset; expressing emotions constructively
• Attention Regulation: Focusing on relevant information; filtering out distractions; sustaining attention
• Behavioral Regulation: Adjusting behavior to match the context; following classroom expectations; transitioning between activities

Classroom Impact: A student who cannot manage basic routines, loses materials constantly, or cannot regulate emotions will struggle academically—even if their cognitive ability is strong. Address adaptive skills explicitly; don't assume they will develop on their own.

Developmental Milestones by Age: Quick Reference

Age	Physical	Cognitive	Social-Emotional	Language
3-4	Runs, jumps, climbs; holds crayon; cuts with scissors	Preoperational; symbolic play; 5-min attention	Parallel play; names basic emotions; separation anxiety fading	2,000+ words; 3-4 word sentences; asks "why?"
5-6	Skips, hops; tripod pencil grip; ties shoes	Transitioning to concrete operational; 10-15 min attention	Cooperative play emerging; developing empathy; wants to please	5,000+ words; complex sentences; emerging literacy
7-8	Coordinated movement; legible handwriting; sports skills	Concrete operational; logical thinking; 20-30 min attention	Stable friendships; comparison to peers; industry vs. inferiority	10,000+ words; reading fluency; written expression
9-10	Refined coordination; detailed fine motor; puberty may begin	Abstract thinking emerging; metacognition developing; 30-45 min attention	Peer influence increases; cliques form; self-concept solidifying	20,000+ words; academic vocabulary; essay writing
11-12	Puberty changes; growth spurts; adult-like coordination	Formal operations emerging; hypothetical thinking; 45-60 min attention	Identity exploration; social comparison intense; increased independence	40,000+ words; persuasive writing; sophisticated vocabulary

IMPORTANT: These are typical milestones, not strict requirements. Significant variation is normal. Red flags appear when a child is significantly behind in multiple domains or shows regression (losing skills previously acquired).

Topic 3: Cross-Domain Development—How Domains Interconnect

Development across domains is interconnected—growth in one area affects all other areas. Teachers must understand these connections to identify root causes of difficulties and provide appropriate support.

Examples of Cross-Domain Effects

Domain Interaction	How It Manifests	Teacher Response
Physical → Cognitive	A child with poor fine motor control struggles to write, limiting their ability to demonstrate cognitive understanding on paper	Offer alternative ways to show learning (oral responses, technology); build fine motor skills separately
Emotional → Social	A child who cannot regulate emotions has frequent outbursts, leading to peer rejection and fewer social learning opportunities	Teach emotional regulation explicitly; facilitate positive peer interactions; repair relationships after conflicts
Linguistic → Cognitive	Limited vocabulary restricts ability to process and express complex ideas; reading difficulties impair learning across subjects	Build vocabulary explicitly; provide audiobooks and read-alouds; don't let language limitations prevent content learning
Social → Emotional	Positive peer relationships build self-esteem and emotional security; social rejection leads to anxiety and depression	Actively facilitate friendships; teach social skills; create cooperative learning opportunities; monitor for bullying
Physical → Emotional	Poor coordination leads to embarrassment in PE and recess; child withdraws from physical activities; self-concept suffers	Provide inclusive physical activities; celebrate effort over performance; build competence in low-pressure settings
Cognitive → Social	A gifted child may struggle to relate to age-peers intellectually; may dominate discussions or become frustrated with group work	Provide intellectual peers through grouping; teach collaboration skills; value different types of contributions
Adaptive → All Domains	A child who cannot manage materials, follow routines, or regulate attention struggles in every area of school	Teach adaptive skills explicitly; provide external supports; don't punish developmental immaturity

KEY INSIGHT: When a student struggles, look beyond the obvious domain. A "behavior problem" might have roots in language delays. A "lazy" student might have executive function challenges. An "unmotivated" reader might have vision problems. Address the root cause, not just the symptom.

Classroom Application: Take a holistic view of each child. When concerns arise, consider all domains:

• Is this a physical issue? (Vision, hearing, motor control, health, sleep, hunger)
• Is this an adaptive/self-help issue? (Can't manage routines, materials, self-regulation)
• Is this a cognitive issue? (Processing, memory, attention, reasoning)
• Is this a linguistic issue? (Understanding, expressing, reading, writing)
• Is this a social issue? (Peer problems, social skills, relationship difficulties)
• Is this an emotional issue? (Anxiety, depression, trauma, self-concept)
• Is this a moral issue? (Understanding expectations, ethical reasoning)

Topic 4: Planning Learning Experiences and Environments That Support Development

Effective teachers intentionally design learning experiences and physical environments that support growth across all developmental domains.

Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP)

DAP, developed by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), provides a framework for making instructional decisions:

1. Know what is age-appropriate: Understand typical development for the age group—what children this age generally can and cannot do
2. Know what is individually appropriate: Assess each child's current developmental level, interests, and needs—don't assume all same-age children are the same
3. Know what is culturally appropriate: Consider each child's family background, cultural context, values, and experiences

Environment Design Principles

Environmental Element	Design Considerations	Developmental Support
Physical Layout	Clear pathways; defined areas for different activities; space for movement; appropriate furniture size	Physical safety; independence; reduced conflict; supports attention
Material Access	Materials organized, labeled, and accessible; students can get and return items independently	Adaptive skills; independence; responsibility; self-regulation
Visual Environment	Not overstimulating; anchor charts at eye level; student work displayed; visual schedules	Cognitive support; reduced anxiety; predictability; pride in work
Flexible Seating	Options for different learning activities; spaces for collaboration and quiet work	Physical needs; social interaction; choice; attention regulation
Quiet Spaces	Calm-down area; reading nook; space for students who need breaks	Emotional regulation; sensory needs; self-awareness
Routines and Schedules	Consistent daily schedule; predictable transitions; visual schedule posted; clear expectations	Security; reduced anxiety; adaptive skills; self-regulation

Designing Learning Experiences Across Domains

Domain	Learning Experiences That Support Growth
Physical	Movement breaks; manipulative use; handwriting practice; recess; PE; classroom jobs requiring movement
Adaptive	Explicit routine teaching; checklists; self-management systems; goal-setting; reflection time
Cognitive	Problem-solving tasks; inquiry; hands-on exploration; puzzles; games; academic instruction
Linguistic	Rich discussion; read-alouds; vocabulary instruction; writing for authentic purposes; oral presentation
Social	Cooperative learning; partner work; class meetings; collaborative projects; structured social times
Emotional	SEL instruction; emotion vocabulary; coping strategies; mindfulness; reflection; restorative practices
Moral	Discussions of fairness; ethical dilemmas in literature; community service; class agreements; consequential thinking

Topic 5: Stages of Cognitive Development and Readiness for Learning

Readiness refers to the convergence of factors that make a child able to benefit from a particular learning experience. It is NOT just about age—readiness depends on maturation, prior knowledge, cognitive development, and motivation.

Four Components of Readiness

Component	Definition	Assessment Questions	Teacher Actions
Biological Maturation	Physical and neurological development needed for the task	Does the child have the fine motor control for writing? The visual tracking for reading? The attention span for the task?	Provide activities that match maturation level; don't force tasks that require development that hasn't occurred; support development through appropriate activities
Prerequisite Knowledge	Prior learning that serves as foundation for new learning	Does the child know letters before phonics? Number sense before addition? Basic vocabulary before reading comprehension?	Assess prior knowledge before instruction; fill gaps before building; never assume background knowledge
Cognitive Development	Thinking abilities aligned with task demands	Is the child's cognitive stage appropriate for the learning? Can they think abstractly if the task requires it? Can they conserve?	Match instruction to Piagetian stage; use concrete before abstract; don't expect operations a child's brain cannot yet perform
Motivation/Interest	Desire and willingness to engage with the learning	Is the child interested? Do they see relevance? Do they believe they can succeed?	Build relevance; ensure early success experiences; foster curiosity; offer choice; build self-efficacy

Reading Readiness Indicators

• Phonological awareness: Can hear rhymes, clap syllables, identify beginning sounds
• Print awareness: Knows text carries meaning; understands left-to-right, top-to-bottom; can identify parts of a book
• Letter knowledge: Recognizes letters; beginning to connect letters to sounds
• Interest in books: Enjoys being read to; interested in print; asks about words
• Oral language: Has vocabulary and sentence structure to support comprehension

Math Readiness Indicators

• One-to-one correspondence: Can count objects accurately, assigning one number to each object
• Number recognition: Identifies written numerals
• Cardinality: Understands that the last number counted represents the total
• Comparison: Understands concepts of "more," "less," "same"
• Spatial awareness: Understands position words; can recognize and describe shapes

What to Do When a Child Isn't Ready

1. Assess specifically: Identify exactly which prerequisite is missing—don't assume
2. Scaffold backward: Teach the prerequisite skills; build the foundation
3. Provide targeted intervention: Focused support on the gap
4. Don't just wait: Readiness can be built through appropriate instruction
5. Continue exposure: Keep the child connected to grade-level content while building prerequisites
6. Monitor progress: Frequent checks to catch when the child becomes ready

EXAM TIP: Readiness is not fixed—teachers can build readiness through appropriate instruction. The goal is to identify gaps and fill them, not to label children as "not ready" and wait indefinitely.

Topic 6: Factors Influencing Development

Development is shaped by the interaction of nature (biological/genetic factors) and nurture (environmental influences). Teachers must understand these factors to support all students effectively.

Environmental Factors Affecting Development

Factor	How It Affects Development	Teacher Considerations
Home Environment	Language exposure, literacy resources, parenting style, stability, stress levels, routines, modeling	Don't assume all children have had the same home experiences; build on strengths; provide missing experiences at school
Community Environment	Safety, resources, social capital, support networks, recreational opportunities, exposure to violence or trauma	Understand the community context; be sensitive to safety concerns; connect families to resources; be trauma-informed
Cultural Values	Expectations for children, views on education, communication styles, family roles, child-rearing practices	Learn about students' cultures; avoid assuming your cultural norms are universal; value diversity; build on cultural assets
Heritage-Based Differences	Language, traditions, identity, historical experiences, funds of knowledge from family and community	Honor students' heritage; include diverse perspectives; see cultural background as an asset; build on funds of knowledge
Economic Conditions	Access to healthcare, nutrition, enrichment, stable housing, parental stress, material resources	Provide resources at school; be aware of food insecurity; don't require materials families can't afford; connect to services
Family Structure	Who is in the home, relationships, custody arrangements, sibling dynamics, extended family involvement	Don't assume traditional nuclear family; know who the caregivers are; be sensitive in discussions of "family"

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems (Expanded)

• Microsystem: Direct environments—family, classroom, peer group, neighborhood, religious community. These have the most immediate impact.
• Mesosystem: Connections between microsystems. Example: When parents and teachers communicate well (strong mesosystem), children benefit. When home and school are in conflict, children suffer.
• Exosystem: Settings that indirectly affect the child. Example: Parent loses job → increased family stress → affects child's behavior at school.
• Macrosystem: Broader cultural context—laws, cultural values, economic conditions, social norms. Example: A culture that values education supports children differently than one that doesn't.
• Chronosystem: Changes over time. Example: A child who experiences parental divorce, a family move, and a new sibling in one year faces multiple chronosystem stressors.

Classroom Application: You can't control all the factors affecting your students' development, but you can:

• Create a positive microsystem in your classroom
• Build strong mesosystem connections with families
• Be aware of exosystem and macrosystem factors affecting your students
• Be sensitive to chronosystem changes (moves, divorces, deaths, births, etc.)

Topic 7: Range of Developmental Differences Within Age Groups

In any classroom, students of the same age will show wide variation in developmental levels. This is normal—not a problem to fix. Effective teachers recognize and respond to this variation.

Sources of Developmental Variation

• Biological differences: Genetics; birth timing (youngest vs. oldest in class can differ by almost a year); physical maturation rate; temperament
• Experiential differences: Prior schooling quality and quantity; home literacy exposure; travel and enrichment; quality of early relationships
• Cultural differences: Values about education; communication patterns; expectations for children; types of knowledge valued
• Individual differences: Learning preferences; processing speed; interests; attention patterns; social orientation

Typical Range Within a Single Classroom

In a typical third-grade classroom, you might have:

• Reading levels ranging from 1st grade to 6th grade (5+ year spread)
• Math readiness varying by 2-3 grade levels
• Social-emotional development ranging from typical kindergarten to typical 5th grade
• Fine motor skills ranging from struggling with legible writing to producing detailed artwork
• Attention spans ranging from 5 minutes to 30+ minutes

Implications for Instruction

Instructional Implication	What This Looks Like
Never assume	Pre-assess before every unit; check for understanding constantly; don't assume grade-level readiness
Differentiate	Adjust content complexity, process activities, and product options based on individual student needs
Use flexible grouping	Group by need, not fixed ability; change groups frequently as students progress; use a variety of grouping configurations
Provide multiple pathways	Offer different ways to learn the same concept; provide scaffolds for those who need them; extend for those who are ready
Use ongoing assessment	Monitor progress continuously; adjust instruction in real-time; don't wait for end-of-unit tests
Maintain high expectations	All students can learn and grow; differentiate the path, not the belief in students' capacity

KEY INSIGHT: Developmental variation is normal and expected. Your job is not to make all students the same—it's to meet each student where they are and move them forward.

Topic 8: Developmental Challenges and Supporting Students

Children face predictable challenges as they develop. Effective teachers anticipate these challenges and provide support—not punishment.

Common Developmental Challenges

Challenge	What It Looks Like	Why It's Developmental	Teacher Support Strategies
Peer Interactions	Conflicts; exclusion; difficulty making/keeping friends; bullying or being bullied	Social skills are learned, not innate; children are still developing perspective-taking and impulse control	Explicitly teach social skills; model and practice conflict resolution; facilitate positive interactions; use cooperative learning with clear structures; monitor social dynamics
Autonomy	Power struggles; testing limits; wanting control; resisting adult direction; "You're not the boss of me"	Children naturally push for independence; this is healthy development of self	Offer choices within boundaries; involve students in decision-making; honor appropriate independence; pick your battles; be consistent with limits
Self-Esteem	"I'm stupid"; avoiding challenges; giving up easily; negative self-talk; comparing unfavorably to peers	Elementary children are in Industry vs. Inferiority stage—constantly evaluating their competence	Ensure success experiences; scaffold appropriately; praise effort over ability; teach growth mindset; avoid public comparison; celebrate progress
Self-Direction	Cannot work independently; constantly needs help; doesn't know what to do next; waits to be told	Self-regulation and executive function are still developing; independence must be taught	Teach self-regulation strategies explicitly; use gradual release of responsibility; provide clear routines and visual supports; celebrate independence; build in self-monitoring
Emotional Regulation	Meltdowns; outbursts; crying easily; difficulty calming down; overreacting to minor problems	Prefrontal cortex (emotional control center) is still developing; emotional brain matures faster than rational brain	Teach emotion vocabulary; model regulation strategies; co-regulate (help them calm) before expecting self-regulation; provide cool-down space; be patient and calm yourself
Decision Making	Impulsive choices; poor judgment; not thinking ahead; choosing immediate gratification over long-term benefit	Executive function (planning, consequential thinking) is still developing	Teach decision-making frameworks; practice with hypothetical situations; discuss consequences in stories; think aloud about your own decisions; give low-stakes practice opportunities
Goal Setting	No sense of purpose; doesn't see long-term; lives only in the moment; doesn't connect effort to outcomes	Future orientation develops gradually; young children are present-focused	Model goal-setting; start with short-term goals; make goals visible and concrete; celebrate progress toward goals; help students see the connection between effort and achievement

CRITICAL UNDERSTANDING: These challenges are developmental—meaning they are normal, expected parts of growing up. Children are not being "bad" when they struggle with these areas. They need teaching and support, not punishment.

Topic 9: Matching Instructional Strategies to Developmental Characteristics

Effective teachers select instructional strategies based on students' developmental characteristics—not just content standards.

Strategies by Developmental Level

Developmental Level	Effective Strategies	Strategies to Avoid
Early Childhood (Pre-K to K) Preoperational thinking; short attention; high movement need; egocentric; learning through play	• Play-based learning • Hands-on exploration • Movement integration • Simple, clear routines • Visual supports • Short whole-group times (5-10 min) • Sensory experiences • Dramatic play • Songs, rhymes, repetition	• Long lectures • Extended seatwork • Complex multi-step directions • Abstract concepts without concrete support • Heavy worksheets • Requiring perspective-taking
Primary Grades (1-2) Transitioning to concrete operational; developing literacy; growing attention; learning school routines	• Manipulatives for math • Guided reading groups • Explicit skill instruction • Structured practice • Partner work • Movement breaks every 15-20 min • Visual supports • Gradual release of responsibility	• Assuming abstract thinking • Long independent work without scaffolds • Heavy note-taking • Complex research projects • Extended testing
Intermediate Grades (3-4) Concrete operational; reading to learn; longer attention; peer relationships crucial; comparison to others	• Concrete manipulatives with gradual abstraction • Cooperative learning • Reading across content areas • Research projects with guidance • Goal-setting and reflection • Flexible grouping • Student choice • Building metacognition	• Pure abstract instruction • Heavy competition (harms self-esteem) • Assuming full independence • Removing all scaffolds too quickly
Upper Elementary (5-6) Emerging abstract thinking; pre-adolescent changes; strong peer influence; identity exploration; increased capacity	• More abstract concepts with concrete foundations • Complex projects • Socratic discussion • Student-led learning • Research and inquiry • Peer collaboration • Real-world connections • Leadership opportunities	• Treating as "little adults" • Ignoring social-emotional needs • Heavy lecture without interaction • Public embarrassment (devastating at this age)

Universal Principles Across Ages

• Assess before teaching: Find out what students know and can do before planning instruction
• Connect to prior knowledge: New learning must attach to existing understanding
• Concrete before abstract: Hands-on experiences precede symbolic representation
• Active engagement: Students learn by doing, not just listening
• Multiple modalities: Present information in visual, auditory, and kinesthetic ways
• Social interaction: Learning is enhanced through discourse and collaboration
• Scaffold appropriately: Provide support in the ZPD; gradually release responsibility
• Check for understanding: Monitor constantly; adjust in real-time

Topic 10: The Role of Play, Social Interaction, Physical Activity, and Hands-On Learning

Play is not a break from learning—play IS learning. Research consistently demonstrates that play, movement, social interaction, and hands-on experiences enhance cognitive development and academic achievement.

Types of Play and Their Developmental Benefits

Type of Play	Description	Developmental Benefits	Academic Connections
Functional/Sensorimotor Play	Repeating actions for pleasure—banging, pouring, stacking, dropping	Cause-effect understanding; sensory exploration; motor development; focus and persistence	Early science concepts; fine motor for writing
Constructive Play	Building with blocks, creating with materials, making things	Spatial reasoning; planning; problem-solving; persistence; creativity; fine motor	Math (geometry, measurement); engineering; art
Dramatic/Pretend Play	Role-playing, imaginative scenarios, pretending to be someone/something else	Perspective-taking; language development; emotional regulation; narrative understanding; social scripts; executive function	Literacy (narrative, vocabulary); social studies (roles, communities); SEL
Games with Rules	Board games, card games, organized sports, structured games	Following rules; turn-taking; strategic thinking; handling winning/losing; self-regulation; social cooperation	Math (counting, strategy); social skills; executive function
Rough-and-Tumble Play	Physical play—chasing, wrestling, playful roughhousing	Self-regulation; reading social cues; physical boundaries; stress release; gross motor; social bonding	PE; social skills; emotional regulation

Social Play Development (Parten's Stages)

1. Unoccupied Play (0-2): Child watches but doesn't participate
2. Solitary Play (2-2.5): Child plays alone, unaware of or uninterested in others
3. Onlooker Play (2.5-3): Child watches others play but doesn't join
4. Parallel Play (3-4): Child plays beside others with similar materials but not with them
5. Associative Play (4-5): Child plays with others, sharing materials, but without organized goals
6. Cooperative Play (5+): Child plays with others toward shared goals with assigned roles

Integrating Play into Academic Instruction

Subject	Play-Based Approach	Learning Outcomes
Literacy	Dramatic play center as restaurant (menus, orders, receipts); post office (letters, addressing); veterinarian office (records, prescriptions)	Print awareness; writing for purpose; vocabulary; reading environmental print; comprehension through retelling
Math	Store with pricing and play money; building challenges with measurement; cooking with fractions; math games	Number sense; operations; measurement; geometry; problem-solving; application of skills
Science	Outdoor exploration; sensory experiments; sink/float; magnet play; gardening; animal observation	Observation; questioning; hypothesis testing; vocabulary; natural curiosity; scientific method
Social Studies	Community helpers dramatic play; mapping the classroom; creating model communities; historical reenactment	Community understanding; roles and responsibilities; geography concepts; historical empathy

Why Physical Activity Enhances Learning

• Increases blood flow to the brain, improving attention, memory, and cognitive processing
• Releases excess energy, reducing behavior problems and restlessness
• Supports motor development, which underlies writing and manipulation
• Improves mood and emotional regulation through endorphin release
• Research shows students perform better on cognitive tasks after physical activity
• Movement can be integrated into academics: acting out stories, kinesthetic math, gallery walks

Why Social Interaction Enhances Learning

• Vygotsky: Learning is fundamentally social—we learn through interaction with others
• Language develops through interaction: Students need to talk to learn to talk
• Explaining to others deepens understanding: "Teaching is the best learning"
• Multiple perspectives: Peers bring different viewpoints that expand thinking
• Motivation: Social interaction increases engagement and enjoyment
• Preparation for life: Collaboration is essential for success in the modern world

Classroom Application: Build movement breaks into every hour. Use cooperative learning structures with clear roles. Create centers that integrate play and academics. Value hands-on exploration as "real learning." Don't sacrifice recess for academics—it backfires.

Topic 20: Understanding Student Differences

Every classroom contains students who differ across multiple dimensions. Effective teachers recognize, value, and respond to these differences.

Dimensions of Difference

Dimension	Range of Differences	Instructional Implications
Cognitive Ability	From intellectual disabilities to giftedness; varied reasoning, memory, processing abilities	Differentiate complexity; provide scaffolds; extend for those ready
Prior Knowledge	Different backgrounds, schooling experiences, exposure to content, home learning	Assess before teaching; build prerequisites; never assume
Processing Speed	Some work quickly, others need more time; not related to intelligence	Flexible timing; don't equate speed with understanding
Learning Preferences	Visual, auditory, kinesthetic, reading/writing preferences	Present in multiple modalities; offer choice in learning and expression
Cultural Background	Values, communication styles, expectations, funds of knowledge	Learn about cultures; build on strengths; be culturally responsive
Language	English proficiency levels; home languages; dialect differences	Support language development; use visuals; honor home language
Socioeconomic Status	Access to resources, experiences, stability; stress levels	Provide resources; be sensitive to circumstances; don't require what families can't provide
Interests	Topics, activities, applications that engage students	Connect to interests; offer choice; use interests for motivation
Temperament	Introversion/extroversion; persistence; activity level; emotional intensity	Honor individual temperaments; don't force all students into same mold

Implications for Teaching:

1. Never assume homogeneity: Even "similar" students differ significantly
2. Assess before teaching: Find out what each student knows and can do
3. Differentiate instruction: Adjust content, process, product, and environment
4. Value diversity: See differences as assets, not problems to fix
5. Maintain high expectations: All students can achieve with appropriate support

Topic 21: Students with Exceptionalities

"Exceptionalities" includes both disabilities (covered under IDEA) and giftedness. Both require specialized approaches.

IDEA Disability Categories

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) identifies 13 categories of disability that qualify students for special education services:

1. Specific Learning Disability (SLD): Average or above-average intelligence with significant difficulty in reading, writing, math, or related areas despite adequate instruction. Most common category (~34% of students with disabilities)
2. Speech or Language Impairment: Difficulty with articulation, fluency (stuttering), voice, or language (understanding or using language)
3. Intellectual Disability: Significantly below-average intellectual functioning AND deficits in adaptive behavior
4. Emotional Disturbance: Behavioral or emotional responses that significantly differ from age-appropriate norms and adversely affect educational performance
5. Autism Spectrum Disorder: Developmental disability affecting social communication and characterized by restricted, repetitive behaviors
6. Other Health Impairment: Chronic or acute health conditions affecting strength, vitality, or alertness (includes ADHD)
7. Multiple Disabilities: Two or more disabilities occurring together with needs that cannot be met by programs for single disabilities
8. Hearing Impairment: Permanent or fluctuating hearing loss that adversely affects educational performance (includes deafness)
9. Visual Impairment: Impairment in vision that adversely affects educational performance (includes blindness)
10. Orthopedic Impairment: Physical disability that adversely affects educational performance
11. Traumatic Brain Injury: Acquired injury to the brain causing impairments in one or more areas
12. Deaf-Blindness: Combined hearing and visual impairments
13. Developmental Delay: For children ages 3-9 who are not meeting developmental milestones (allows services without requiring specific diagnosis)

Accommodations vs. Modifications

Accommodations	Modifications
Change HOW a student learns or shows learning Same content and standards Examples: • Extended time • Preferential seating • Audiobooks/text-to-speech • Calculator for computation • Frequent breaks • Reduced distractions • Notes provided • Large print	Change WHAT a student learns Different content or standards Examples: • Fewer spelling words • Simplified reading level • Reduced number of problems • Alternative assignment • Different learning objectives • Participation grading • Shortened assignments • Alternate curriculum

Teaching Strategies by Disability

Disability	Effective Teaching Strategies
Learning Disabilities (Dyslexia, Dyscalculia, Dysgraphia)	Explicit, systematic instruction; multisensory approaches; extended time; audiobooks; graphic organizers; assistive technology; avoid oral reading in front of class; frequent checks for understanding
ADHD	Preferential seating; minimize distractions; chunk tasks; frequent movement breaks; visual timers; clear one-step directions; positive reinforcement; organizational supports; frequent check-ins
Autism Spectrum Disorder	Visual schedules; predictable routines; advance notice of changes; explicit social skills instruction; sensory accommodations (quiet space, headphones); special interest connections; clear, concrete language
Emotional/Behavioral Disorders	Build positive relationship first; clear, consistent expectations; calm responses; choices when possible; cool-down space; focus on reinforcing positive; avoid power struggles; teach coping skills
Speech/Language Impairments	Extended wait time; don't complete sentences for student; visual supports; pre-teach vocabulary; allow alternative responses; collaborate with speech therapist
Intellectual Disabilities	Concrete instruction; functional skills; repetition and practice; break into small steps; visual supports; peer buddies; age-appropriate materials at appropriate level

Gifted and Talented Learners

Gifted students also need differentiation. Common characteristics and challenges:

• Learn quickly—may be bored with regular pace
• May have intense curiosity and ask many questions
• Perfectionism—may avoid risks; fear of failure
• Asynchronous development—cognitively advanced but emotionally age-appropriate
• May struggle socially with age-peers
• Strong sense of justice—may challenge authority when they perceive unfairness

Strategies for Gifted Learners:

• Curriculum Compacting: Pre-assess; skip mastered content; use time for enrichment
• Tiered Assignments: Same topic, different complexity levels
• Independent Study: Student-driven investigation of interest areas
• Depth and Complexity: Add layers—multiple perspectives, ethical issues, patterns over time, unanswered questions
• Acceleration: Subject-specific or grade-level advancement when appropriate
• Cluster Grouping: Place gifted students together for peer interaction
• Problem-Based Learning: Complex, open-ended problems

Topic 22: Understanding Students' Backgrounds and Connecting to Resources

To teach the whole child, you must know the whole child. This requires learning about students' backgrounds and connecting them to appropriate resources.

Strategies for Learning About Students

• Interest inventories: Written surveys about hobbies, favorites, goals, preferences
• Family communication: Calls home (positive!), questionnaires, conferences, home visits
• Observation: Watching interactions, noting patterns, listening to conversations
• One-on-one conversations: Building relationship through authentic interest
• Community involvement: Attending events, visiting neighborhoods, learning context
• Cumulative records: Review with appropriate perspective (don't let past bias you)
• Colleagues: Previous teachers, specialists, support staff who know the student

School and Community Resources

• School-based: School counselors, social workers, psychologists, speech therapists, reading specialists, behavior specialists, gifted coordinators
• District resources: Special education services, ELL programs, gifted programs, family liaisons, parent coordinators
• Community resources: Mental health services, food banks, housing assistance, after-school programs, tutoring, health services, family support services
• Parent organizations: PTA, cultural groups, parent support networks

Your Role: Know what resources exist. Connect families to appropriate supports. Be a bridge between families and services. Follow up to ensure connections are made.

Topic 23: Working with ELLs, Students with Exceptionalities, and Diverse Learners

English Language Learners (ELLs)

Stages of Second Language Acquisition:

Stage	Duration	Characteristics	Teacher Response
Silent/Receptive	0-6 months	Listening, absorbing; 500+ word receptive vocabulary; minimal speaking	Don't force speech; use visuals; allow pointing/gesturing; focus on comprehensible input
Early Production	6 months-1 year	1-2 word responses; yes/no answers; basic vocabulary; many errors	Accept errors; expand on responses; use sentence frames; ask yes/no and either/or questions
Speech Emergence	1-3 years	Short sentences; basic grammar; improving comprehension; still many errors	Encourage longer responses; model correct grammar without explicit correction; ask "how" and "why" questions
Intermediate Fluency	3-5 years	Complex sentences; more academic vocabulary; fewer errors	Challenge with academic language; continue scaffolds; push for elaboration
Advanced Fluency	5-7 years	Near-native proficiency; continues developing academic language	Monitor for continued growth; support content-area vocabulary

CRITICAL CONCEPT: BICS vs. CALP (Jim Cummins)

BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills)	CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency)
• Conversational, everyday language • Develops in 1-3 years • Context-embedded (gestures, expressions help) • "Can talk to friends on the playground"	• Academic, specialized language • Takes 5-7 years to develop • Context-reduced (language alone conveys meaning) • "Can understand a science textbook"

Key Insight: A student who speaks English fluently in conversation may still struggle significantly with academic texts. This is normal. Continue providing language support even after students appear "fluent."

Instructional Strategies for ELLs

• Visual supports: Pictures, gestures, graphic organizers, real objects, videos
• Sentence frames: "The character felt ___ because ___." Provide structure for expression.
• Vocabulary pre-teaching: Teach key words with visuals BEFORE the lesson
• Comprehensible input: Speak clearly; use gestures; simplify language (but not content)
• Extended wait time: 7-10 seconds for processing in a second language
• Partner work: Pair with supportive peers who model language
• Native language connections: Use cognates; allow L1 discussion; preview in native language
• Word walls: Academic vocabulary with pictures displayed
• Modeling: Show what you expect; provide examples and non-examples

Topic 24: Planning Responsive, Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction = adjusting instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners so all students can access the curriculum and achieve.

Differentiation Framework

What to Differentiate	Definition	Examples
CONTENT	What students learn	Tiered readings; varied complexity of materials; compacted curriculum for advanced; prerequisite instruction for struggling
PROCESS	How students learn	Learning centers; varied activities; flexible grouping; varied scaffolding; choice in how to engage
PRODUCT	How students show learning	Choice boards; varied assessment options (write, present, create, demonstrate); tiered rubrics
ENVIRONMENT	Where and when students learn	Flexible seating; quiet spaces; collaborative spaces; varied time allowances

Differentiate Based On:

• Readiness: Current skill level—task should be challenging but achievable
• Interest: Connect content to what engages the student
• Learning Profile: Preferred ways of learning and processing

Key Principles of Differentiation

1. Start with clear learning goals—differentiate the path, not the destination (unless modifications are needed)
2. Use ongoing assessment to know where students are
3. Provide scaffolds that can be added or removed as needed
4. Use flexible grouping—change groups based on need
5. Student choice increases engagement and ownership
6. Maintain respectful tasks—all tasks should be meaningful and valuable

Topic 25: Creating Positive, Supportive, Inclusive Classrooms

Students learn best in environments where they feel safe, valued, and respected.

Elements of a Positive Classroom Environment

• Physical safety: Organized space, clear pathways, appropriate furniture
• Emotional safety: Respect for all, no put-downs, mistakes are learning opportunities
• Predictability: Consistent routines, clear expectations, fair enforcement
• Belonging: Every student has a place; community-building activities; representation in materials
• High expectations with support: Believe all can succeed; provide scaffolds to achieve

Promoting Understanding and Respect for Differences

• Curriculum: Include diverse perspectives, authors, historical figures, examples
• Discussion: Facilitate conversations about differences respectfully
• Modeling: Demonstrate respect and curiosity about differences
• Celebration: Honor cultural events, share traditions, value heritage
• Intervention: Address bias, stereotypes, and discrimination immediately
• Mirrors and windows: Students should see themselves in curriculum (mirrors) and learn about others (windows)

Building Classroom Community

• Morning meetings or community circles
• Class agreements created together
• Collaborative projects
• Peer support systems
• Recognition that honors effort and growth, not just achievement
• Restorative practices when harm occurs

Topic 26: Working Respectfully with Families

Families are partners in education. Effective teachers build genuine, respectful relationships with families.

Principles of Family Partnership

1. Respect: Value family knowledge, culture, and perspective. Parents know their children best.
2. Reciprocity: Two-way communication—listen as much as share. Ask questions, not just give information.
3. Authenticity: Genuine interest in the child's wellbeing—not just compliance.
4. Accessibility: Remove barriers (language, time, transportation, technology).
5. Strengths-based: Focus on assets, not just problems. Lead with the positive.

Effective Communication Strategies

• Start with positive contact—don't wait for problems
• Communicate in family's preferred language
• Offer multiple ways to connect (calls, texts, email, in-person, apps)
• Flexible meeting times (not just 3pm on weekdays)
• Listen to understand, not just to respond
• Follow through on commitments—build trust through reliability
• Acknowledge and honor different family structures and situations

Gaining Holistic Knowledge of Students

• Ask about child's interests, strengths, and challenges at home
• Learn about family structure, culture, values
• Understand what motivates the child and what concerns the family
• Identify health issues, stressors, transitions
• Ask what has worked (and not worked) in the past

REMEMBER: Parents who seem uninvolved may face significant barriers (multiple jobs, past negative school experiences, language barriers, transportation, childcare). Meet families where they are. Don't judge.

Topic 27: Responding to Negative Attitudes and Creating Inclusive Community

Teachers must actively counter bias and create learning communities where everyone is valued.

Recognizing Negative Attitudes

• Stereotyping: Generalizing about groups based on assumptions
• Prejudice: Pre-judging individuals based on group membership
• Discrimination: Actions that harm or exclude based on difference
• Microaggressions: Subtle, often unintentional slights that communicate bias
• Bullying: Repeated aggression targeting individuals

Responding to Bias Incidents

1. Interrupt immediately: Don't let bias go unaddressed—silence communicates acceptance
2. Name the behavior: "That's a stereotype" or "That language is hurtful"
3. Support the target: Affirm their worth and belonging
4. Educate: Teach why the behavior is harmful (age-appropriately)
5. Follow up: Check in with all involved; document if needed; involve administration for serious incidents

Proactive Strategies for Inclusive Community

• Curriculum: Include diverse voices; counter single stories; teach accurate history
• Discussion: Facilitate age-appropriate conversations about fairness, difference, justice
• Modeling: Demonstrate respect, curiosity, and appreciation for all
• Relationships: Build authentic connections with students from all backgrounds
• Self-reflection: Examine your own biases continuously
• Ally behavior: Speak up when you witness bias, even when targets aren't present
• Explicit teaching: Teach about differences, bias, discrimination, and allyship
• Student voice: Involve students in creating and maintaining inclusive culture