Introduction

Competency 1 of the Ohio Dual Adolescence-to-Young-Adult/Special Education (061) exam addresses the characteristics of students with disabilities. This competency falls within the Students with Disabilities domain, which accounts for approximately 20% of the total exam score. To succeed in this area, you must demonstrate a thorough understanding of human growth and development across four key domains — cognitive, speech and language, social and emotional, and physical — along with the types and defining features of various disabilities, and how students with disabilities compare to their peers who do not have identified disabilities.

This study guide is organized into three major sections. First, you will review the four developmental domains and their trajectories during adolescence and young adulthood. Second, you will examine each major disability category recognized under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), with particular emphasis on how these conditions present in secondary-age learners (grades 7 through 12). Third, you will explore the similarities and differences between students with and without disabilities, including the concept of within-group variability and the importance of person-first thinking in educational practice.

Human Growth and Development Across Domains

Understanding typical developmental trajectories is foundational to recognizing when a student's growth deviates from expected patterns. Development is not uniform: a student may be advanced in one domain while lagging in another. This uneven profile is especially common among students with disabilities, making it essential for special educators to monitor all four domains rather than focusing on a single area of concern.

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development refers to the progressive growth of thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, memory, and the ability to process information. During adolescence, significant changes occur in how learners think about abstract concepts, plan ahead, and evaluate their own thought processes.

Concrete to formal operational thinking: According to Piaget's framework, adolescents transition from concrete operational thinking — where reasoning relies on tangible, observable events — to formal operational thinking, which involves hypothetical reasoning, deductive logic, and the ability to think about thinking (metacognition). Many secondary students are still developing formal operational capacities, and students with certain disabilities may remain in concrete operational stages for longer periods or may not fully reach formal operations.
Executive function: The prefrontal cortex, which governs executive functions such as planning, working memory, impulse control, flexible thinking, and self-monitoring, continues to mature throughout adolescence and into the mid-twenties. Students with disabilities such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), traumatic brain injury, or intellectual disability often experience significant executive function deficits that affect academic performance and daily functioning.
Information processing: As learners mature, their ability to process information becomes faster and more efficient. They develop better strategies for encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Students with specific learning disabilities or intellectual disabilities may demonstrate slower processing speed, limited working memory capacity, or difficulty transferring knowledge from one context to another.
Metacognition: The ability to reflect on and regulate one's own learning develops throughout adolescence. Skilled learners monitor their comprehension, identify when a strategy is not working, and adjust their approach. Students with disabilities may need explicit instruction in metacognitive strategies such as self-questioning, think-alouds, and progress monitoring.

Teaching Application: When working with secondary students who have cognitive delays, provide concrete examples before introducing abstract concepts. Use graphic organizers and visual supports to scaffold executive function demands. Teach metacognitive strategies explicitly — model them, practice them collaboratively, and gradually release responsibility to the student.

Speech and Language Development

Speech and language development encompasses both the mechanical production of sounds (speech) and the broader system of understanding and using language to communicate (language). Language has two major components: receptive language (understanding what others say) and expressive language (producing spoken or written communication). Both continue to develop in sophistication throughout adolescence.

Pragmatic language: During the secondary years, pragmatic language — the social rules governing how language is used in context — becomes increasingly complex. Adolescents must navigate sarcasm, idioms, persuasive writing, academic discourse, and the different registers required in formal versus informal settings. Students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or specific language impairments may struggle with these subtleties, leading to social misunderstandings and academic difficulty in subjects that require inference and interpretation.
Academic vocabulary and syntax: Content-area instruction in grades 7 through 12 demands command of increasingly specialized vocabulary and complex sentence structures. Students with language-based learning disabilities may comprehend everyday conversation but struggle to access the dense, discipline-specific language found in textbooks, lectures, and standardized assessments.
Morphological awareness: The ability to recognize and use word parts (prefixes, roots, suffixes) grows during adolescence and supports both reading comprehension and spelling. Students with language disorders may need targeted instruction in morphological analysis to decode unfamiliar academic terms.
Speech production: Most students have mastered all speech sounds by early adolescence, but some may continue to exhibit articulation errors or fluency disruptions (stuttering). These difficulties can affect self-confidence and peer relationships in the secondary setting.

Teaching Application: Pre-teach academic vocabulary before introducing new content. Provide students with word banks, sentence frames, and visual cue cards that support both comprehension and expression. Create structured opportunities for students to practice academic discourse through discussion protocols such as Socratic seminars and collaborative reasoning.

Social and Emotional Development

Social and emotional development involves the ability to form and maintain relationships, understand and regulate emotions, develop a sense of personal identity, and navigate increasingly complex social environments. Adolescence is a period of particularly intense social and emotional change.

Identity formation: Erik Erikson's theory identifies adolescence as the stage of identity versus role confusion, during which young people explore who they are in relation to their values, beliefs, peer groups, and future goals. Students with disabilities may face additional identity challenges related to their disability label, feelings of being different, and questions about their long-term capabilities.
Peer relationships: The importance of peer acceptance intensifies during adolescence. Students with disabilities — particularly those with social communication deficits, emotional disturbance, or visible physical differences — may experience social isolation, bullying, or difficulty reading social cues. These experiences can significantly affect mental health and academic engagement.
Self-regulation: The capacity to manage emotions, delay gratification, and respond appropriately to frustration develops throughout the teenage years. Students with emotional disturbance, ADHD, or ASD may demonstrate significant self-regulation difficulties that manifest as behavioral outbursts, withdrawal, anxiety, or impulsive decision-making.
Self-determination: As students approach adulthood, they should develop the skills to advocate for themselves, make informed decisions, set goals, and take responsibility for their actions. For students with disabilities, explicit instruction in self-determination is a critical component of transition planning and leads to improved post-school outcomes.

Teaching Application: Incorporate social-emotional learning (SEL) into daily instruction through structured activities such as role-playing, reflective journaling, and cooperative problem-solving. Teach self-advocacy skills by having students participate in their own Individualized Education Program (IEP) meetings and practice communicating their strengths and needs to teachers.

Physical Development

Physical development during adolescence involves significant changes in body size, motor coordination, sensory processing, and overall health. Puberty brings dramatic physiological transformations that affect students emotionally and socially as well as physically.

Gross and fine motor skills: By adolescence, most students have well-developed gross motor skills (large-muscle movements such as running, jumping, and balancing) and fine motor skills (small-muscle movements such as writing, typing, and manipulating tools). Students with orthopedic impairments, cerebral palsy, or developmental coordination disorder may continue to experience significant motor challenges that require accommodations in physical education, science labs, and written assignments.
Puberty and growth patterns: The onset and pace of puberty varies widely. Students with certain genetic conditions or chronic health impairments may experience delayed, early, or atypical puberty. Educators should be sensitive to the emotional impact of physical differences during a developmental period when peer comparison is heightened.
Sensory processing: Some students with disabilities — particularly those on the autism spectrum — experience atypical sensory processing, meaning they may be hypersensitive (over-reactive) or hyposensitive (under-reactive) to sensory input such as noise, light, textures, or movement. These sensory profiles can affect attention, behavior, and comfort in the classroom environment.
Health and stamina: Students with chronic health conditions (such as seizure disorders, diabetes, or sickle cell disease) or physical disabilities may experience fatigue, pain, or medical absences that affect their participation and learning. Understanding the physical demands a disability places on a student is essential for designing appropriate supports.

Teaching Application: Provide flexible seating options, movement breaks, and alternative methods for demonstrating learning (oral responses, assistive technology) for students with motor or sensory challenges. Coordinate with occupational therapists and physical therapists when a student's physical needs affect classroom participation. Maintain open communication with families regarding health concerns and medication effects.

Types and Characteristics of Disabilities

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) identifies 13 categories of disability under which students may qualify for special education services. As a special educator working with adolescents and young adults, you need to understand the defining characteristics, common educational impacts, and instructional considerations for each category. Below are the major disability types you are most likely to encounter and should be prepared to address on the exam.

Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD)

A specific learning disability is a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using spoken or written language. SLD is the most prevalent disability category, accounting for roughly one-third of all students served under IDEA.

Reading disabilities (dyslexia): Difficulty with accurate and fluent word recognition, decoding, and reading comprehension. Secondary students with reading disabilities often struggle with content-area textbooks, standardized tests, and any assignment requiring sustained reading. They typically demonstrate average or above-average intelligence but perform well below expected levels in reading.
Written expression disabilities (dysgraphia): Difficulty with handwriting, spelling, grammar, and organizing written ideas. In secondary settings, this may manifest as very brief or disorganized essays, frequent spelling and punctuation errors, and avoidance of writing tasks.
Mathematics disabilities (dyscalculia): Difficulty with number sense, mathematical reasoning, computation, and problem-solving. Secondary students may struggle with algebra, geometry, and applied math concepts despite adequate instruction.
Key characteristic across SLD: There is an unexpected gap between a student's overall intellectual ability and their achievement in the specific area affected. SLD is not the result of intellectual disability, sensory impairments, emotional factors, or inadequate instruction.

Teaching Application: Use multisensory instruction, provide extended time, offer text-to-speech and speech-to-text technology, and break complex tasks into smaller steps. Teach learning strategies explicitly — such as mnemonic devices, annotation techniques, and step-by-step problem-solving protocols — so that students develop compensatory tools.

Intellectual Disability (ID)

An intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning (reasoning, learning, problem-solving) and adaptive behavior (conceptual, social, and practical life skills), with onset during the developmental period. Students with intellectual disabilities typically score approximately two or more standard deviations below the mean on standardized intelligence tests.

Severity levels: Intellectual disability ranges from mild to profound. Students with mild intellectual disability may participate in general education with modifications and may achieve functional academic skills. Students with moderate to severe intellectual disability typically require more intensive supports and a curriculum focused on life skills, community participation, and vocational readiness.
Adaptive behavior deficits: Beyond cognitive limitations, students with intellectual disability demonstrate challenges in adaptive skills such as communication, self-care, social skills, health and safety, self-direction, and functional academics. Assessing adaptive behavior is a required component of eligibility determination.
Generalization difficulties: Students with intellectual disability frequently have difficulty applying skills learned in one setting to a new context. Instruction must include systematic practice across multiple settings and situations.

Teaching Application: Use task analysis to break complex routines into small, teachable steps. Provide repeated practice opportunities with immediate feedback. Embed functional life skills into academic instruction. Collaborate with families and related service providers to ensure consistency across environments.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Autism spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent challenges in social communication and social interaction, along with restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. The term "spectrum" reflects the wide range of severity and presentation across individuals.

Social communication deficits: Students with ASD may have difficulty understanding nonverbal cues (facial expressions, body language, tone of voice), maintaining reciprocal conversations, interpreting figurative language, and understanding the perspectives of others (theory of mind). In secondary settings, these challenges intensify as social expectations become more nuanced.
Restricted and repetitive behaviors: These may include intense, narrow interests; insistence on sameness and routines; stereotyped motor movements (hand flapping, rocking); and unusual responses to sensory input. While these behaviors can be strengths — deep interests can fuel academic engagement — they may also interfere with flexibility and participation in varied activities.
Cognitive profile: Intellectual ability among students with ASD varies enormously, from profound intellectual disability to giftedness. Some students demonstrate uneven skill profiles, excelling in areas such as visual-spatial reasoning or factual memory while struggling with abstract reasoning, comprehension, or social problem-solving.

Teaching Application: Provide clear, predictable routines and advance notice of changes. Use visual schedules and social narratives. Teach social skills explicitly through structured curricula. Leverage students' special interests as motivational tools and entry points into academic content. Minimize unnecessary sensory stimulation in the learning environment.

Emotional Disturbance (ED)

Emotional disturbance under IDEA refers to a condition that adversely affects educational performance and is characterized by one or more of the following over a long period of time and to a marked degree: an inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; an inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships; inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances; a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. This category includes conditions such as anxiety disorders, mood disorders, conduct disorder, and schizophrenia.

Externalizing behaviors: Some students with emotional disturbance display outward behaviors such as aggression, defiance, disruptive conduct, and difficulty following rules. These students are often identified relatively early because their behaviors are conspicuous and disruptive to the classroom.
Internalizing behaviors: Other students exhibit inward-directed patterns such as withdrawal, excessive worry, depression, somatic complaints, and social avoidance. These students are frequently under-identified because their struggles are less visible.
Academic impact: Regardless of whether behaviors are externalizing or internalizing, emotional disturbance significantly disrupts academic engagement. Chronic absenteeism, difficulty completing work, strained teacher-student relationships, and disciplinary consequences all contribute to poor academic outcomes.

Teaching Application: Implement positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS). Build strong, trusting relationships through consistent, respectful interactions. Teach coping strategies and self-regulation techniques explicitly. Use functional behavior assessments (FBA) to identify the purpose a behavior serves and design behavior intervention plans (BIP) that address the underlying function rather than merely suppressing the behavior.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are inconsistent with the individual's developmental level. While ADHD is not listed as a separate disability category under IDEA, students with ADHD may qualify for special education under the Other Health Impairment (OHI) category or receive accommodations through Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.

Predominantly inattentive presentation: Characterized by difficulty sustaining attention, frequent careless mistakes, difficulty organizing tasks, losing materials, and being easily distracted. In secondary settings, these students may struggle with multi-step assignments, long-term projects, and note-taking during lectures.
Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation: Characterized by fidgeting, difficulty remaining seated, excessive talking, blurting out answers, and difficulty waiting. While physical hyperactivity may decrease somewhat by adolescence, internal restlessness and impulsive decision-making often persist.
Combined presentation: Students exhibit significant features of both inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity.
Executive function impact: ADHD profoundly affects executive functioning, including working memory, time management, task initiation, and response inhibition. These deficits can be more impairing than the inattention or hyperactivity itself.

Teaching Application: Provide organizational supports such as checklists, planners, and color-coded materials. Break long assignments into manageable chunks with intermittent check-ins. Allow movement breaks and flexible seating. Use proximity, cueing, and nonverbal signals to redirect attention without drawing public attention to the student. Collaborate with families about medication management when applicable.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

A traumatic brain injury is an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment that adversely affects educational performance. TBI can affect cognition, language, memory, attention, reasoning, abstract thinking, judgment, problem-solving, sensory and perceptual abilities, motor skills, behavior, and emotions.

Variability of effects: The impact of TBI depends on the location, severity, and extent of the brain injury. No two students with TBI present the same profile. Some may recover significant function over time, while others experience permanent challenges.
Cognitive impacts: Common cognitive effects include slowed processing speed, memory deficits (especially new learning), difficulty with attention and concentration, and reduced executive functioning. A student who was previously a strong performer may return to school with markedly different abilities.
Behavioral and emotional changes: TBI can alter personality and emotional regulation. Students may exhibit increased irritability, impulsivity, emotional lability (rapid mood swings), reduced frustration tolerance, or fatigue.

Teaching Application: Develop flexible, regularly updated educational plans because a student's needs following TBI may change over weeks and months. Allow extended time and reduce the volume of work. Provide written instructions and repeated review. Monitor for fatigue and build in rest periods. Coordinate closely with medical professionals, neuropsychologists, and families.

Orthopedic Impairments and Other Health Impairments

An orthopedic impairment is a severe physical limitation that adversely affects a student's educational performance. This includes impairments caused by congenital anomalies (such as clubfoot or absence of a limb), disease (such as poliomyelitis or bone tuberculosis), or other causes (such as cerebral palsy, amputations, or fractures). Other health impairments (OHI) involve chronic or acute health problems — such as epilepsy, sickle cell anemia, diabetes, heart conditions, or Tourette syndrome — that result in limited strength, vitality, or alertness that adversely affects educational performance.

Cerebral palsy: A group of neurological disorders affecting movement and posture. Students with cerebral palsy may have difficulty with fine and gross motor control, speech production, and maintaining stable positioning. Cognitive ability ranges widely — many students with cerebral palsy have average or above-average intelligence despite significant motor challenges.
Chronic health conditions: Students with conditions such as epilepsy, diabetes, or sickle cell disease may experience medical episodes, medication side effects, frequent absences, and fatigue. These interruptions can fragment learning and require careful planning for instructional continuity.
Assistive technology needs: Students with physical impairments often benefit from adaptive equipment such as specialized keyboards, voice-controlled software, wheelchair-accessible workstations, and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices.

Teaching Application: Ensure physical accessibility throughout the school environment. Learn to operate and troubleshoot any assistive technology a student uses. Create alternative methods for participation in hands-on activities. Develop plans for managing medical emergencies and train paraprofessionals accordingly.

Sensory Impairments: Visual and Hearing

Visual impairment including blindness refers to a significant loss of vision, even after correction, that adversely affects educational performance. Deafness refers to a hearing loss so severe that the student cannot process linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification. Hard of hearing describes a hearing loss that may be permanent or fluctuating and affects educational performance but is not as severe as deafness.

Impact on language development: Students who are deaf or hard of hearing may experience significant delays in spoken language development because auditory access to language is limited. Students who use American Sign Language (ASL) as their primary mode of communication bring a rich linguistic foundation but may need support with English literacy because ASL has a different grammatical structure than written English.
Impact on access to instruction: Students with visual impairments may need materials in Braille, large print, or audio format. Students with hearing impairments may need interpreters, captioning, preferential seating, FM systems, or visual aids that supplement auditory instruction.
Deaf-blind: Students who experience combined hearing and vision loss face unique communication, mobility, and instructional challenges that require highly individualized intervention approaches, often involving tactile communication systems.
Social and emotional considerations: Sensory impairments can contribute to feelings of isolation, especially in inclusive secondary settings where rapid peer communication and environmental awareness are important for social participation.

Teaching Application: Collaborate with teachers of the visually impaired (TVIs) and teachers of the deaf or hard of hearing to design accessible instruction. Provide materials in the student's preferred format well in advance. Ensure that visual presentations are described verbally and that auditory information is supplemented with visual supports. Foster inclusive social opportunities and educate peers about respectful communication.

Multiple Disabilities and Deaf-Blindness

Multiple disabilities refers to the presence of two or more concurrent impairments, the combination of which creates educational needs so significant that they cannot be addressed in a program designed solely for one of the impairments. For example, a student with both intellectual disability and a physical impairment may need a uniquely designed program that addresses cognitive, motor, and adaptive skill development simultaneously.

Complexity of needs: Students with multiple disabilities typically require intensive, individualized supports across all developmental domains. Their educational programs often emphasize functional life skills, communication development, health management, and community-based instruction.
Communication challenges: Many students with multiple disabilities use augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems — such as picture exchange systems, communication boards, or speech-generating devices — because spoken language may not be a functional option.
Team-based service delivery: Addressing the needs of students with multiple disabilities requires close collaboration among special educators, speech-language pathologists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, medical professionals, and families. An interdisciplinary approach ensures that goals are integrated rather than addressed in isolated therapy sessions.

Teaching Application: Use a person-centered planning approach that prioritizes the student's quality of life and meaningful participation. Embed instruction in natural routines and authentic contexts. Train all team members — including paraprofessionals — on the student's communication system and behavioral supports so that responses are consistent across all interactions.

Similarities and Differences Among Students With and Without Disabilities

One of the most important principles in special education is that students with disabilities are more like their non-disabled peers than they are different. While the presence of a disability introduces specific challenges that require targeted support, it does not define the whole person. Understanding both the commonalities and the distinctions is essential for designing inclusive, effective instruction.

Shared Developmental Needs

Regardless of disability status, all adolescents share fundamental developmental needs and characteristics:

Need for belonging: Every adolescent needs to feel accepted by peers, valued by adults, and connected to a community. The desire for social inclusion is universal and does not diminish because a student has a disability.
Identity exploration: All teenagers are in the process of exploring their identities, values, and future goals. Students with disabilities engage in this same process, though they may also grapple with the meaning of their disability in relation to their self-concept.
Drive for autonomy: Adolescents increasingly seek independence from adults and desire more control over their own decisions. For students with disabilities, supporting this natural drive through self-determination instruction is both developmentally appropriate and a best practice in special education.
Capacity for learning: All students can learn when given appropriate instruction, adequate time, and meaningful support. The expectation that students with disabilities can grow and achieve — even if the pace or pathway differs — is a foundational premise of effective special education.
Emotional complexity: Adolescence brings heightened emotional sensitivity, mood variability, and an increased capacity for empathy and abstract emotional understanding. Students with and without disabilities experience these emotional shifts, though some disability conditions may amplify or alter emotional regulation.

Key Differences Introduced by Disability

While the foundational needs are shared, disabilities can introduce specific differences in the rate, pattern, or profile of development:

Rate of development: Students with intellectual disability or global developmental delays typically progress through developmental milestones at a slower rate. Their ultimate achievement levels may be lower than those of peers without disabilities, but they follow a similar sequence of skill acquisition.
Uneven developmental profiles: Many students with disabilities demonstrate asynchronous development — performing at or above grade level in some areas while significantly lagging in others. A student with dyslexia may have strong oral reasoning skills but below-grade-level reading ability. A student with ASD may have advanced mathematical knowledge but limited social communication skills.
Need for specialized instruction: Students with disabilities typically require instructional approaches that are more explicit, systematic, and intensive than what general education alone provides. This may include direct instruction of skills that peers acquire incidentally, additional practice opportunities, and specialized curricula.
Reliance on supports and accommodations: Students with disabilities often need environmental modifications (preferential seating, reduced distractions), instructional accommodations (extended time, alternative response formats), or assistive technology to access the same curriculum that peers access independently.
Transition planning needs: While all students benefit from career and postsecondary planning, students with disabilities require formal transition planning beginning no later than age 16 (and ideally earlier) to address postsecondary education, employment, and independent living goals. This planning is legally mandated under IDEA.

Within-Group Variability

A critical concept for special educators is within-group variability — the understanding that students who share the same disability label can differ dramatically from one another. Two students both identified with autism spectrum disorder may have entirely different cognitive profiles, communication abilities, behavioral patterns, and support needs. Disability labels provide a starting point for understanding general characteristics, but they do not serve as a blueprint for any individual student.

Avoid overgeneralization: Effective special educators resist the temptation to assume they know a student's abilities and challenges based solely on a diagnostic label. Thorough, individualized assessment is necessary to understand each learner's unique profile.
Person-first and identity-first language: Person-first language (a student with a disability) emphasizes the individual before the condition. Some communities, particularly within the Deaf and autistic communities, prefer identity-first language (a Deaf student, an autistic student) as an affirmation of identity. Respecting the preferences of students and their families is essential.
Strengths-based perspective: Every student — regardless of the nature or severity of their disability — has strengths, interests, and capacities. Identifying and building on these strengths is more effective than a deficit-only model that focuses exclusively on what a student cannot do.

Teaching Application: Begin each school year by conducting comprehensive assessments — both formal and informal — to understand each student as an individual. Review prior evaluation data, talk with the student and their family, observe the student in multiple settings, and use curriculum-based measures to establish current performance levels. Build instructional plans on this individualized foundation rather than on assumptions tied to a diagnostic category.

Inclusive Practices and the Continuum of Services

IDEA requires that students with disabilities be educated in the least restrictive environment (LRE) appropriate for their individual needs. This means that, to the maximum extent appropriate, students with disabilities should be educated alongside their peers without disabilities. However, the continuum of placement options — ranging from full inclusion in general education to separate schools — exists because no single setting is appropriate for every student.

Benefits of inclusive settings: When adequately supported, students with disabilities benefit from exposure to grade-level content, academic role models, social interaction with a diverse peer group, and higher teacher expectations. Non-disabled peers also benefit by developing empathy, flexible thinking, and collaborative skills.
When more restrictive settings are needed: Some students require intensive, specialized instruction that cannot be effectively delivered in a general education classroom. Decisions about placement should be made by the IEP team based on individual student data, not on the disability category alone.
Co-teaching and collaboration: In secondary settings, co-teaching models — where a general education teacher and a special education teacher plan and deliver instruction together — are a common strategy for supporting students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms. Effective co-teaching requires shared planning time, mutual respect, and clearly defined roles.

Teaching Application: Advocate for inclusive placements when appropriate, but always base recommendations on individual student needs and data. When co-teaching, actively participate in content instruction — do not take on a passive assistant role. Ensure that accommodations and modifications are implemented consistently so that students with disabilities can access and demonstrate learning in the general education setting.

Key Takeaways

Development is multi-dimensional: Cognitive, speech/language, social/emotional, and physical domains interact and influence one another. Monitoring all four domains is essential for understanding each student's complete profile.
Adolescent development continues through the mid-twenties: Executive function, emotional regulation, and identity formation are ongoing processes. Students with disabilities may need explicit support in areas that peers develop more independently.
IDEA identifies 13 disability categories: Each category has defining features, but the most critical takeaway is that labels describe a starting point, not a comprehensive picture. Within-group variability is the rule, not the exception.
SLD is the most common disability: Specific learning disabilities affect approximately one-third of students receiving special education services and are characterized by a discrepancy between ability and achievement in a specific academic area.
Students with and without disabilities share fundamental needs: All adolescents need belonging, autonomy, identity exploration, and the belief that they can learn and grow. Disabilities introduce specific differences in rate, pattern, and required supports, but do not alter these core needs.
Effective special education is individualized: Assessment, instruction, and placement decisions must be based on each student's unique profile of strengths and needs — never on assumptions tied to a disability label alone.
Transition planning is a legal mandate: For students with disabilities, formal planning for postsecondary life must begin no later than age 16 and should address education, employment, and independent living.
Inclusive education benefits all students: When properly supported, inclusion provides academic, social, and emotional benefits for both students with disabilities and their non-disabled peers. The least restrictive environment principle guides placement decisions.

Free Ohio Dual Adolescence to Young Adult Special Education (7–12) (061) Study Guide

What You'll Learn

Free Study Guide - Lesson 1